Quantum projection noise (SQL): σ_δν ≥ 1/(2π·T·√(N·T_tot/T))

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Bollinger-Itano-Wineland-Heinzen (1996) quantum projection noise (QPN) / standard quantum limit (SQL): for an ensemble of N uncorrelated two-level atoms probed by Ramsey interrogation of free-evolution time T and total averaging time…

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Allan variance of white frequency noise: σ²_y(τ) = h₀/(2τ) (τ^{−1} scaling)

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