Industrial conversion of hydrocarbons to fuels, polymers, specialty chemicals, propellants, and lubricants. Refining, reforming, cracking, fuels/propellants, commodity polymers, nitrogen/sulfur/halogen industrial processes.
Petrochemistry And Industrial
Crude oil (petroleum)
Naturally-occurring liquid hydrocarbon mixture: alkanes C5-C40+, cycloalkanes, aromatics, NSO heteroatom compounds. Composition varies by…
Fractional distillation of petroleum
Separation of crude oil by boiling-point cuts in a vertical column with descending temperature gradient: gases (<40°C), naphtha (40-200°C),…
Gasoline & octane rating
C4-C12 hydrocarbon blend tuned for spark-ignition engines. RON/MON octane number referenced to iso-octane (100) and n-heptane (0);…
Diesel & cetane rating
Middle distillate C10-C22 for compression-ignition engines. Cetane number (ignition delay) referenced to n-hexadecane (100) and…
Kerosene & jet fuel (Jet-A, JP-8)
C8-C16 distillate. Jet-A flash point ≥38°C, freeze ≤-40°C; JP-8 military variant adds icing/static/corrosion additives. Smoke point spec…
Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC)
Zeolite-Y-catalyzed scission of heavy gas oil into gasoline-range alkenes + branched alkanes at 500°C. Carbocation intermediates via…
Catalytic reforming
Pt/Re-Al2O3 bifunctional catalysis: linear alkanes → branched + aromatics (BTX) + H2. Raises octane 40→95, supplies H2 for hydrotreating.…
Steam cracking
Non-catalytic free-radical pyrolysis of naphtha/ethane at 850°C + steam dilution → ethylene + propylene + butadiene + pyrolysis gasoline.…
Hydrocracking & hydrotreating
High-pressure H2 + NiMo/CoMo-Al2O3 sulfide catalyst cleaves heavy fractions (hydrocracking) or removes S/N/O/metal heteroatoms…
Refinery alkylation
Acid-catalysed (HF or H2SO4) combination of isobutane + C3-C5 olefins → high-octane branched alkanes (e.g., 2,2,4-trimethylpentane). Key…
Claus process
Recovery of elemental sulfur from H2S (sour gas/refinery off-gas): 2H2S+3O2→2SO2+2H2O then 2H2S+SO2→3S+2H2O on alumina catalyst. Accounts…
Contact process (H2SO4)
Industrial sulfuric acid production: S→SO2→SO3 over V2O5 catalyst at 450°C (2SO2+O2⇌2SO3, exothermic), then SO3+H2SO4→oleum→H2SO4.…
Ostwald process (HNO3)
Industrial nitric acid synthesis: NH3+O2→NO (Pt-Rh gauze) → NO2 → dissolve in water → HNO3 + NO recycle. Foundation of fertilizer +…
Solvay process (Na2CO3)
Soda-ash synthesis from brine + limestone + ammonia: NaCl+NH3+CO2+H2O→NaHCO3+NH4Cl; 2NaHCO3→Na2CO3+CO2+H2O. Nearly complete NH3 recovery…
Chloralkali process
Electrolysis of brine in membrane cell → Cl2 (anode) + H2 + NaOH (cathode). Replaced mercury + diaphragm cells. Largest industrial…
Methanol synthesis
Industrial CO/CO2 hydrogenation on Cu/ZnO/Al2O3 at 50-100 bar, 250°C: CO+2H2⇌CH3OH. Feed syngas from steam methane reforming. Gateway to…
Fischer-Tropsch synthesis
CO+H2 → liquid hydrocarbons on Co/Fe catalyst via chain-growth polymerization (Anderson-Schulz-Flory distribution). Gas-to-liquids (Sasol,…
Steam methane reforming (SMR)
CH4+H2O⇌CO+3H2 (endothermic, Ni catalyst, 700-1000°C) + water-gas-shift (CO+H2O⇌CO2+H2). Dominant industrial H2 source (~95% world H2 ≈ 70…
Polyethylene (HDPE/LDPE/LLDPE)
Ethylene chain polymer; #1 commodity plastic (~120 Mt/y). LDPE: branched, free-radical, high-pressure. HDPE: linear,…
Polypropylene (iPP/aPP/sPP)
Propene polymer; stereoregularity (iso/syndio/atactic) dictates crystallinity + mechanics. Isotactic PP via Ziegler-Natta or metallocene;…
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Vinyl chloride suspension/emulsion polymer. Rigid (pipe) or plasticized (phthalate-softened film). Third-largest plastic; controversies…
Polystyrene + ABS
Styrene free-radical polymer. Atactic is glassy; syndiotactic is semicrystalline. EPS foam; ABS is acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene…
PET (polyethylene terephthalate)
Condensation polymer of terephthalic acid + ethylene glycol. Bottles, fibres (Dacron/Mylar). Recyclable via glycolysis or hydrolysis;…
Nylon (polyamides)
Polyamides: nylon-6,6 (hexamethylenediamine + adipic acid), nylon-6 (caprolactam ring-opening). Strong H-bonding; fibers, engineering…
PTFE & fluoropolymers
Polytetrafluoroethylene: C-F bonds → chemical inertness, low friction, thermal stability (usable to 260°C). Non-stick coatings, seals. PFOA…
Polyurethanes
Diisocyanate + polyol step-growth. Segmented block copolymers: hard (urethane) + soft (polyether/polyester). Foams, elastomers, coatings.…
LOX/LH2 cryogenic propellant
Liquid oxygen + liquid hydrogen bipropellant; highest specific impulse (Isp ~450 s vacuum) of practical chemical rockets. Cryogenic…
RP-1 (kerolox)
Refined Jet-A-like kerosene oxidized by LOX; lower Isp (~300 s) but much denser than LH2 → smaller tanks. Used in Saturn V F-1, Falcon 9…
Hypergolic propellants (N2O4/UDMH, MMH)
Bipropellants that ignite spontaneously on contact — N2O4 oxidizer + hydrazine derivatives (UDMH, MMH). Storable, restart-capable; used in…
APCP solid propellant
Ammonium perchlorate composite: AP oxidizer (70%) + Al fuel (16%) + HTPB binder/rubber. SRBs (Shuttle, SLS, Ariane). Cast in motor case;…
Lubricant base oils + additives
API Group I-III (mineral, hydrocracked), Group IV PAO synthetic, Group V esters. Viscosity index improvers, detergents (Ca/Mg sulfonates),…
Bitumen / asphalt
Vacuum-distillation residuum: asphaltenes (polar, aromatic, high MW) dispersed in maltenes. Road paving, roofing. Performance-graded by…
Natural gas & LNG
Methane-dominant gas with ethane, propane, butane, N2, CO2, H2S. Processed to pipeline spec or liquefied at -162°C for shipping (LNG).…
Biodiesel (FAME)
Fatty acid methyl esters from transesterification of triglycerides (soy, rape, waste-oil) with methanol and NaOH/KOH catalyst. Oxygenated,…
Bioethanol (fermentation)
Yeast fermentation of sugar → ethanol + CO2. First-generation (corn, sugarcane); second-generation cellulosic via pretreatment + enzymatic…
Fischer–Tropsch synthesis
nCO + 2nH₂ → (CH₂)_n + nH₂O (Fe/Co catalysts); Anderson-Schulz-Flory chain distribution α; GTL (Shell, Sasol) to fuels.
Haber–Bosch NH₃ synthesis (detail)
N₂ + 3H₂ ⇌ 2NH₃; Fe/K₂O/Al₂O₃ promoter; 150-300 bar, 400-500 °C; ~170 Mt/yr, 1% global energy.
Water-gas shift reaction
CO + H₂O ⇌ CO₂ + H₂; LT (Cu-ZnO) and HT (Fe₃O₄-Cr₂O₃); removes CO to ppm in NH₃/H₂ production.
Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC)
Gas-oil → gasoline + LPG with zeolite (ZSM-5) catalyst; fluidized bed, continuous coke burn; key refinery unit.
Catalytic naphtha reforming
Pt-Re or Pt-Sn/Cl-Al₂O₃; dehydrogenation + isomerization raises octane; UOP, Axens processes; source of aromatics, H₂.
Alkylation (isobutane + olefin)
HF/H₂SO₄ or solid acid catalyzed; isobutane + butene → iso-octane; high-octane gasoline blendstock; EPA scrutiny of HF hazards.
MTBE / ETBE oxygenates
Isobutylene + MeOH/EtOH → MTBE/ETBE via acidic ion-exchange; octane boosters; groundwater contamination issues.
Steam cracking to ethylene
Ethane/naphtha + steam at 850 °C; free-radical cracking; 180 Mt/yr ethylene; largest petrochemical process by tonnage.
Methanol synthesis (ICI/Lurgi)
CO/CO₂ + H₂ on Cu/ZnO/Al₂O₃ at 50-100 bar, 220-270 °C; 100 Mt/yr; methanol-to-olefins/gasoline downstream.
Methanol-to-olefins/gasoline (MTO/MTG)
MeOH over H-SAPO-34 or ZSM-5 gives olefins/gasoline; route from coal/biomass to chemicals without oil; coal-rich China deployment.
Polyolefin solution polymerization
Metallocene/post-metallocene catalysts; high α-olefin incorporation; single-site control of composition; LLDPE, EPDM elastomers.
Refinery distillation (atm + vacuum)
Atmospheric distillation cuts LPG/naphtha/kero/diesel/AGO; vacuum distillation for heavy oils to avoid thermal cracking.
Industrial CO₂ capture
Amine (MEA, piperazine) absorption; post-combustion; Calera, Climeworks DAC; energy penalty 3-4 GJ/t CO₂.